نشریه نقد ادب معاصر عربی
پیاپی 22 (بهار و تابستان 1401)

Romanticism, which is a school based on the belief in the value of individual experiences, fantasies, creativity and imagination, sometimes manifests itself in such areas as resistance. In this regard, it has found special position in literary contexts where the ideal are more important than the real. The mind that contains idealistic tendencies offers a kind of action based on conflict with the rational. This school is a Western literary approach that emerged in England and Germany in the late eighteenth century, then in France, Italy, Russia and other European countries in the nineteenth century, and finally dominated the European literature. It is very complex and chaotic and sometimes has contradictory principles. The romantic approach combines nature and art, poetry and prose, memory and prophecy, vague beliefs and vivid emotions, what is heavenly and what is earthly and, finally, life and death. Zarrinkoub says that this school, unlike classicism, which depends on reason, is based on passion, taste, feeling and imagination. The basis of insight and perception of romantics is a personal and individual element, and their ideas are mostly relative. Beauty and art is the superiority of feeling and emotion over other mental powers, emphasizing the unity and harmony of poetry and music, freeing oneself from the shackles and dealing with individual emotions. In the Arabic literature, romantic poets and writers reduced the rule of reason by making their inner feelings dominant through their work. They did it by taking refuge in the skirts of nature, joining the human conscience, and expressing romantic regret and pain within themselves.Romanticism in the Arabic literature was somewhat different from the European romanticism in terms of themes and concepts. Among the expressive features of Arab romantics, one can refer to the avoidance of task and art, trying to use fluent words, relying on music and harmony of words and phrases, and using illustrations based on imagination and emotions. Conceptually. when emotion and imagination dominate, a single spiritual atmosphere overshadows the whole poem, so that the poet, with the dominence of emotions and feelings enriches the pains, suffering. He depicts deprivations and aspirations. Then, by taking refuge in nature, he reduces some of his inner pain and achieves the desired peace. Of course, Mohammad Mandour considers this school to have extreme practices in the mere use of emotional emotions and painful emotional cries. Regarding the romantic view of the Arabic poetry, it should be added that this school sometimes gives a negative and sad spirit and sometimes a positive and thoughtful spirit to the poem, which is a lively and active look at the concepts of freedom and struggle. He has a constant desire for revolution. In the contemporary Arabic literature, as in Palestine, many writers have turned to this style due to environmental disorders and unsuitable socio-political conditions. One of the poets in this field in Palestine is Masad Mohammad Ziad. Like other contemporary poets, he turned to this school of romantic grief and sorrow due to the unhealthy conditions of their environment as well as the Zionist aggression and murders. They turned to this school and expressed their pain and sorrow in this form of poetry. Massad's set of sorrowful poems in Palestine express romantic longing for his pain and suffering and his homeland caused by the turbulent situation in the political, social and economic arenas as well as his constant sense of pain, which he has expressed to his compatriots. The social romanticism in his poetry is more tangible than his individual image.

This research has been done by descriptive-analytical method with reference to library and electronic library resources and thematic-content retrieval, and based on objective observations of the poems in question, and its adaptations to the theoretical foundations of the discussion to examine the effects of this school in Poems about the stability of this poet.

The findings of the study indicate that components such as regret about disorders and pains and inappropriate environmental conditions, reminder of the beloved and childhood, reflection of grief and loneliness, regret of the crimes in the occupying regime, idealism, and freedom from restraints in Mas'ad Ziad's poetic speech are prominent, and thus the poet has been able to convey his grief to the audience in a desirable romantic processing of resistance-oriented themes.

The poet has used linguistic and phonetic tools in some contexts to process his concepts concretely. It also seems that, due to the completely different nature of romantic feelings from revolutionary and resistance-oriented beliefs and spirits, the poet has been able to provide a suitable combination of these two relatively heterogeneous spaces to express his poetic intentions. The prominent aspect of romanticism in his poems is more than social romanticism. In some places, the poet's reliance on society and the entanglement of poetry and his personality with individuals in society and their pains are evident. He is an intellectual cautious with attacks on the Zionist regime and the Jews who have usurped the land of Palestine, and this credible attack, along with categories such as idealism and the reflection of grief and loneliness, is imperceptibly effective. In addition, with his own romantic style, he expresses his inner pain about his homeland, his martyred fellows, missing of his beloved (which is his homeland), his childhood and the happiness and sufferings of the society in the form of poems. He falls and, because of the aggression and disorder of the environment, he looks at an idealistic and imaginary world that is only visible in his mind. He seems to be waiting for the promised savior to bring humanity out from under the boots of oppression and tyranny.

Defamiliarization involves infinite techniques that distinguish literary language from colloquial and ordinary language. Sometimes these tricks and arrangements lose their ability to induce concepts due to their frequent and repetitive application, and the artist's job is to activate the art of disabled structures through new systematization and personal rhetoric. One of these works of art is image, which, rhetorically formed, distinguishes literary language from ordinary and everyday language. Image is one of the most widely used terms in literary criticism, it has long been used in rhetoric, and it is one of the most important topics in contemporary literary criticism. The Arabic poetry has many capacities in this field, and poets have always used this capacity to enrich their poetry. But the quality of the image differs from classical to modern poetry. The classical poet depicted exactly the same objects in his poetry and did not try to decipher these images, while the contemporary poet is able to break away from the traditions of depicting the ancient Arabic poetry and sometimes create surprising similes using surrealist techniques. The surrealists who sought it were taught by Burton. He went to the depths of the human mind that he was unaware of. Ezedin Ismail is one of the famous Egyptian critics who has examined the image of new poetry in the form of issues and artistic aspects. 

Accordingly, the present study seeks to extract his views in this field by a descriptive-analytical method and a critical approach. The questions to answer regard Ezedin's view of poetic images as compared to the image of arts such as painting, music and cinema. The questions are ‘what are the commonalities and differences of poetic and ordinary images?’ and ‘what are the functional differences between the artistic images in ancient poetry and contemporary poetry?’

The title "Theory and adaptation" can be applied to his method of criticism in this field. In the first part, he presents his opinion and then applies the corresponding theories to sample works. His studies in this field are remarkable. Inspired by surrealist views in literary criticism, he has expressed the characteristics of the poetic image and compared it with the image of other arts. He has also examined the difference between the functions of images in classical and modern poetry. The main purpose of writing the present research is to introduce this great critic to the scientific community and researchers of literature. The critical views in this respect can provide favorable conditions for comparative critical research. Another importance of this research relates to new literary theories in the field of poetic imagery and critical views of Ezedin. Considering the emergence of different schools and their treatment of various arts such as painting, cinema and sculpture, and the sharing of these arts with poetry in the image, contemporary critics believe that it is important to study the image.

The results of this research show that a poetic image is distinguished from other artistic images in terms of spatio-temporal, sensory and expressive characteristics. Also, new poetic images differ from classical poetic images. The psychological approach is the main approach of literary criticism in all the works and critical subjects of Ezedin. It seems that his attitude towards the poetic image is a combination of psychological and aesthetic approaches, which and can be called "theory and adaptation". One of the most important issues that Ezedin Ismail stated under the influence of surrealist ideas about poetic imagery is that the poetic imagery simultaneously has a spatial-temporal structure that does not fit into the logic of time and natural space; it has distinctions from other art images. In his view, the images in classical poetry and modern poetry are different. The image in classical poetry shows the object directly and its distinctive feature is clarity and explicitness, but, in the image of new poetry, the poet gives time and place a special mental structure that is compatible with the emotional state of the poet and is the result of his dreams, desires and thoughts. Also, in his opinion, classical poetry as much as modern poetry has not been able to create a single spatial and temporal coherence between distant images, and new poetic images, based on classical poetry, are based on a kind of heterogeneity, contradiction, contradiction and fantasy. The contemporary poet does not regulate the experience of others nor his consciousness and the content of his intellect and memory, but depicts inner revolutions and uncontrollable emotions. The results of such situations are strange similes and metaphors and unknown images, the components of which cannot be found in the form of similes and metaphors.

The term "discourse analysis" was first used in 1952 in an article by the famous English linguist Zelik Harris. In this article, by presenting a formalist view, he described discourse analysis as merely a structuralist view of sentence and text. After him, many linguists considered discourse analysis as the analysis of the structure of spoken language, such as conversations and interviews. They also considered text analysis as the analysis of the structure of written language such as articles and stories. Critical discourse refers to a kind of evolutionary process of discourse analysis in which attention is paid to the affective processes in the formation of discourse by passing through the mere description of linguistic data. This type of discourse analysis benefits from both social and linguistic approaches. In the social approach to discourse, the situational context is explained, while the linguistic approach serves to describe the textual context.Methods and

One of the suitable contexts for critical discourse analysis is the novel. The novel Season of migration to the north has a special place in the field of modern Arabic novel writing. It was selected in 2001 by the Damascus Academy of Arabic Literature as the best Arabic novel of the twentieth century. Considering the importance of the position of this novel, its critique is also important from different viewpoints. The novel has unique elements to present from the perspective of critical discourse and is more consistent with the Fairclough model than with the various models available in this field.The present article examines the novel Season of migration to the north in a descriptive-analytical manner and at the three levels of the Fairclough model. It seeks to answer the questions ‘What will be the results of examining the external texture of the novel and analyzing it at the level of description?’, ‘What is the context of the novel at the level of explanation and ideology of Tayeb Saleh?’ and ‘In what titles and contents has the level of interpretation and internal context of the novel reached the stage of emergence?Research

After the development of the critical discourse analysis approach, novels were considered from the perspective of linguistic structure and discourse-oriented components, and books and articles were written about the novel Season of migration to the north., For example, Mohammad Shahin describes the character of Mustafa Saeed in his book entitled Literature and Myths (1996). Reza Nazemian, in an article entitled "Westernization or Orientalism in Arabic Novels" (2011), compares the novel of Tayeb Al-Saleh with several other novels, all of which are on the issue of confrontation of Eastern traditions with Western liberties and technology. Also, in an article entitled "Confrontation of place and its semantic functions in the novel The Season of the Stone to the North" (2013) by Majid Mohammadi et al., the confrontation of places has been emphasized to understand the concept of the confrontation between East and West. The paper has also considered a semantic function for the element of place, which arouses the reader's curiosity and advances the events of the story. Despite these valuable works, the study of this novel from the perspective of critical discourse has not been done in any of the articles and books so far. The present article is the first one in the field to examine this novel at three levels.

Critical discourse analysis is based on social constructivism. The critical discourse analysis of the novel Season of migration to the north is performed based on Fairclough's model at the three levels of description (including linguistic analysis), interpretation (discussion of the production and use of texts) and explanation (social factors and ideology). There are several results gained as presented below.At the descriptive level, the writer's language is generally fluent and understandable to readers and avoids mystery and myth. The style of expression is firm and has an honest tone. The author has used the terms primitive life, which indicates his interest in the original Arabic tradition and culture. Repetition in this novel, by mentioning Mustafa's affairs with Western women several times, shows the war against colonialism in the form of rape of Western women. Scenography and illustration make up a significant part of Tayeb Saleh's novel, which helps the reader to gain a deep understanding of the theme of the story.At the level of explanation, which expresses the author's ideology, the struggle against colonialism and its condemnation is manifested in the form of the confrontation of the main character of the story, Mustafa Saeed, with Western women. The hatred for colonialism takes shape in the main story space, where Mustafa desecrates Western women and eventually kills them. Therefore, the general view of the story and the dominant ideology in it is based on confronting the colonialists and expressing the real feelings of the eastern people to years of aggression and colonization.At the level of interpretation, the situational context of the novel is examined. The novel dates back to the years of Sudanese colonization. The presence of the colonizers and their influence can be seen throughout the novel. Also, in the field of intertextuality, the use of the character Atil (Othello) and Quranic concepts is evident in this novel. In the internal context, the author refers to the opposition between East and West.

An important factor that can influence the lives of children and teenagers - is literature. This has been reflected in a considerable and valuable bulk of research. Mahmoud Shoukair is a famous Palestinian writer and a pioneer in the field of children's literature. He was born in Jerusalem in 1941 AD. After primary and secondary education, he went up for a bachelor’s degree in philosophy and social sciences from a Syrian university. Choukair has literary and artistic skills in many areas such as novels, short stories, anecdotes, movie–scenarios, travelogues and stories, as well as children and adolescents’ literature. His writing job began in 1962 began with a number of magazines such as Alafaq el-Jadid – which published his works in the field of children and adolescents’ literature.Style: Chambers looked at a wide genre, beyond the usual boundaries of words and sentence structure and has his own stylistic features and the use of language. The author and reader can elicit their own information because the text conveys any desired meaning. Point of view: A way of attracting the audience’s attention and setting up communication between the reader and the text is to select a proper point of view. In children’s literature, this feature can establish a better relationship between the author and the audience. A certain point of view passing everything through the filter of perspectives and thus more audience's sympathy can be gained with the work.Advocacy: One of the common beliefs in the childishness of any work is that the child is the central character of the story or that the child is at the center of the story. According to Chambers, the principle and element that can help to communicate with a low-age audience and draw him into the text is the principle of companionship and empathy with the child and support him. According to this theory, however, the author does not need to support exaggerations of the latent reader, or to show himself openly in favor of the child, or to go so far as to place the child in front of the adults.Another method –to affect the audience is to stimulate his thoughts and imagination. This helps to fill the gaps in the text of the story. So there is no problem to sometimes use blanks and dotsin the text. According to Chambers, a skilled author can leave certain points to be guessed or imagined by the reader, which is gives the audience a chance of participation in the story.
In this study, we try to analyze the stories of Mahmoud Choukair "from the perspective of Aidan Chambers’ theory and and answer the following questions:
Which-of the four tenets of Chambers’s theory is involved more?
What is the point of view of the story according to the theory of Chambers?
How are the wordsstructured in the storyof Mahmoud Choukair for children?
What isthe author's view of the world of children and adolescents?

This study is based on the descriptive - analytical method and the theory - of Aidan Chambers. The data have been collected through valid library websites.

The ups and downs of the story are very attractive, and the ambiguities in it are solved reasonably.  The story of Anna and Jamana has a coherent and orderly evolutionary course, and the events are tied to the main character of the story. The characters Anna and Joumana –are the most important elements of the story. Its features, positive and beautiful ethics and values are powerful and influential in the society, and the vocals are impressive. The language of the author in this story is far from any otnament, ambiguity and complexity. Simple, fluent, pleasant, understandable, concise and useful sentences and words have been selected. Pictures in the heart of the story are flexible. Angle viewing is associated with a childlike look, and theories postulate a child in the world inside and outside the ruling. The use of angle as a childish vision sets the stage for more reading, which provides a connection with the text. Joumana element in the story of Anna and advocacy is bold and well expresses the author's curiosity and mischief and shows the active participation of the reader. The main feature of this element isthe protagonist's imaginary world view .The story of Anna and Joumana is in the context of adventures. There is decentralization and ambiguity in most of the storytelling techniques of this story.

a. The fans in the story have sympathy with children and young people.Although the stores have been written for children, it involves the participation of adults as well.Mahmoud Choukair uses simple and understandable terms appropriate to the children's level of knowledge.
Theauthor of the story elaborately depicts kids’ world view.

and analyzing the relationship between signs and their meanings. Semiotic analysis is a useful for practicing a new way of reading. In modern poetry, naming poems is one of its structural dimensions, is considered as a complementary element for the poem’s message, and plays a unique role in preparing the audience for communication with the text. Therefore, the title as a linguistic sign is the identity and introduction of the poem, and the semiotics of the title can greatly help to analyze the poem. Saadi Yusuf, a contemporary Iraqi poet, is one of those whose poems are named intelligently and based on the structural logic that governs the entire text such that the titles of his poems can be categorized based on specific criteria. Thus, the title in Yousuf's poems is not a marginal element, but a fundamental component, and it is not less important than the text. The aim of this study is to answer the following questions after dealing with the semiotics of the title in the anthology "Al-Layali Kolloha: Al-A'mal Al-Shari'ah" by Saadi Yusuf:- What was the poet’s method of choosing the titles of his poems?- According to Saussure's theories, what kind of relationship do the titles of Yusuf's poems have with the text?

In this research, based on the descriptive-analytical method and Saussure's view, the semiotics of the titles has been studied in Yusuf's Al-Layali Kollohah collection. For a new understanding of Saadi Yusuf's poems, the present study examines five poems from his anthology with the titles Zahran and Eli Abd al-Wahhab al-Bayati. Considering the subject of this study into account, the poems are selected in such a way as to include the most indications related to the titles.

Saadi Yousuf is one of those poets whose poems have been named intelligently and based on the structural logic of the whole text of the poem. The most important methods that he has used in naming titles are recalling the past or the elements that indicate them, choosing nostalgic or Western-related titles, selecting titles that indicate unknown places or persons, dedicating titles to the political suffocation issue and the use of numbers.The poet has produced meaning with the help of successor and companion relations and thus has created a large lexical system around the desired meanings. The titles of the poems have been so cleverly chosen that they are closely related to the original text and, in many cases, are in parallel with the original text to strengthen its meanings. Throughout the poem, the poet tries to expand the concise meaning of the title, and thus the text is a translation of the title and the title is a brief introduction to the text. In the poem "Amro_Be_Lghelghabz", Saadi Yusuf has used signs related to political obstruction and suffocation. The title is also chosen in a way that it attracts the audience's attention. After obtaining the meanings of the words "Amr" and "Elghaelghabz", one can find words in the text that are reinforced by these signs. These signs, like in Saadi Yousuf's other poetic titles, have the role of reinforcing the meaning of the title. Moreover, the text itself is composed of a set of signs that revolve around the subject of "tyranny and repression" through succession. The poem "Legha_Maa_Rajol" regards meeting a person who is unknown, and this has encouraged the audience to enter the text. What makes the ambiguity in the poem clear is the key substitute words in the title in the vertical axis of the text, which helps to untie the title knot. By being careful in the text of the poem, we can find many signs that strengthen the meaning.The title of the poem "Al-Salban Al-Khamsa", like most of Saadi Yusuf's titles, has a provocative and encouraging function. In terms of the semiotic aspects, finding the lexical system of the words "al-Salban" and "al-Khamsa" and explaining the context of the text can be of great help in deciphering the title. In such a context, Yusuf depicts the "sorrow", "simplicity", "fatigue", "loneliness" and "greenness" of the lover in the form of five crosses and fears that will destroy him. Thus, the whole text is full of signs that revolve around the "subject of fear of loneliness" in a syntagmatic form. The poem "Arza Zahran" reflects the desire to return to the past. The word "Arz" can be associated with many words through succession, such as the words "homeland", "root", "homelessness", "enthusiasm", "past" and "memory".The main text of the poem in the axis of succession is composed of a collection of signs that revolve around the "return to the glorious past". In the poem "Eli Abd al-Wahhab al-Bayati" one can also find many signs related to the title. They are consistent with the intellectual and ideological character of al-Bayati.

The results of the research indicate that the poet has chosen the titles of his poems by using methods such as calling for the past civilizations, nostalgic issues, names of places or unknown people, presenting poems, surreal images as well as using numbers and topics related to tyranny. The smart choice of titles is such that it moves alongside the original text and, with the help of succession, strengthens its signs. Therefore, the semantic atmosphere of the title throughout the poem has been strengthened and the poet constantly strives to achieve its ideal. This endeavor eventually leads to the production of new meanings by relating the title and the text and creating an in-text network of meanings through syntagmatic relations.

Interdisciplinary studies provided the basis for a better understanding of literary texts and made new sciences such as psychology a suitable platform for the analysis of literary works. Jacques Lacan is one of the neo-Freudian psychologists who reviewed Freud's traditional views and combined them with modern linguistics to provide a scientific and accurate method for researching literary texts. He supported Freud's views with a scientific and modern approach and redefined the  Freudian theory of unconsciousness with the term "Return to Freud" which caused a great change in psychology. The difference between his work and that of other psychologists was in the combination of Freud's traditional theories with the views of Dossussor’s linguistics and Hegel's phenomenology and philosophy. Accordingly, he proposed a new framework for the human subconscious that did not exist in Freud's view. This manifested the transformation and advancement of psychoanalysis, which has become an interdisciplinary study and integrated scientific theory. Therefore, his method is not limited to psychology; rather, it draws on the basic concepts of other sciences, especially linguistics. Lacan, like Freud, has always been a fan of literary works and considers them worth teaching to psychoanalysts. As a result, such a view provides the basis for the psychoanalytic criticism of literary works, especially fiction, and investigates the unknown subconscious world of the characters in the story.Shahd al-Rawi is a young Iraqi writer who rose to fame with his first long novel The saat Baghdad. It was nominated for Booker World Prize for Arabic Novel and attracted critical acclaimations. Al-Ravi gave the novel a psychological look by using a new and distinctive narrative method and paying attention to the personality issues and the psychological structure of the characters in the story. This novel is a clear image of the inner world of its characters, especially the main character, i.e., the narrator, who was affected by the devastating consequences of the Gulf War in the 1990s. The novel consists of discrete narratives in which the narrator tells various events during and after the war that happened to him. The discontinuous and episodic structure of the story reflects the anxiety and distress of the main character of the story by reconsidering his past memories. The important role of the childhood is also reflected in his subconscious. Since Lacan examines the structure of the human personality in three separate dimensions, his view can be a suitable theory to show the psychic rupture of the main character of the novel Saat Baghdad and to express the fragmentary narrative structure of the story. Therefore, according to Lacan's integrated approach, the psychological damages of the story character should be investigated in the deepest semantic layers of the text of the novel.

The present study seeks to psychoanalyze the main character of this novel, the narrator, based on Jacques Lacan's triple theory and to show the reflection of imaginary, symbolic and real areas in his personal and social life.

According to the research findings, the main character of the story escapes from everyday reality due to the unfavorable and war conditions in Iraq and drowns in his imaginations in the hope of achieving unity with the mother body. He takes refuge in the world of childhood and dreams and gradually moves away from the symbolic realm and the world of social codes and norms. He also suffers a loss of dignity and loses his connection with real life, thus becoming an isolated and depressed creature.

Considering the psychoanalysis of the main character of the novel Saat Baghdad and based on Jacques Lacan's theory of psychological realms, it can be concluded that the formation of the narrator character from childhood and from the Persian Gulf War in 1990 to the US and British invasion in 2003 is similar to the psychological realms of Lacan’s theory, which is manifested in the three categories of imagination, symbolism and realism. Due to the conditions of war, this character takes resort to the world of dreams instead of the real world. Moreover, due to his excessive desire for the imaginary realm, a psychotic tendency appears in his behaviors. Examining this novel on the basis of the aforementioned cases makes it evident that the beginning of the symbolic realm, learning of language, acceptance of social norms and father’s law cause the narrator's character to be lost and emptied when he tends to the imaginary field to fill this gap. He suffers from a loss of dignity, and unspeakable emotions flow through his mind by language, which remain only in the pre-linguistic stage and do not flow onto his tongue. The narrator depicts these vague states and feelings through the stream of consciousness and inner monologues.In addition, the narrator or the main character of the story gets familiar with another great person (father) and his relatives, namely Ahmad (Nadia's fiancé) and Farooq (his lover), by entering the symbolic field and learning the language. This is in complete contrast with the other little one, so he sees them as the cause of his separation from the other little one, which prevents him from achieving the sense of security he has gained from being one with mother in the imaginary realm. Thus, the other great person and his relatives become a barrier between the narrator and the other little one. This creates a lot of anxiety and stress for him. As a result, he becomes a shy, depressed and dependent person who feels lonely and abandoned in this world.

Taha Hussein is an Egyptian literary figure of the twentieth century who has played an effective role in promoting the written culture of the contemporary Arab world by creating numerous works in the field of history and literature. He has been able to play the same role in the Arab philosophical tradition as founded by Descartes in the Western philosophical tradition. The purpose of this study is to analyze the method of Taha Hussein's historiography by emphasizing the introduction chapter of the book Fi Al-Adab Al-Jahili. It also seeks to enumerate the theoretical foundations of Taha Hussein's methodology and evaluate it epistemologically. In addition, it attempts to weigh its epistemology in terms of importance, validity and contemporaneity of the Verstehen tradition according to the theoretical foundations of the Max Weber method. The study criticizes the efficiencies and inefficiencies of this epistemology too.

This study describes Taha Hossein’s approach for the historiography of ignorant poetry and criticizes its efficiencies and inefficiencies with a comparative descriptive method and a conceptual analysis approach.

Contrary to Taha Hussein's approach, the historian does not avoid the value system in all the stages of a research process to apply the components of the value system, nor can the natural sciences in the postmodern reading, despite claiming objectivity, be free from value biases. This is because theories are not only the product of reflection and thinking on an object but also the result of genius, profound reflection and, in general, the interaction of the subject and the object.Neither the dogmatism of objectivists and Taha Hussein nor the relativism of subjectivists and postmodernists alone leads the historian to the destination, because both approaches believe in methodological exclusivism in history and historiography. But the third approach, which made history a continuous dialogue between the historian and the event, and the acquisition of knowledge as the result of the interaction of the mind and the object are more effective.
Truth-based propositions that convey extra-mental facts are not limited to the field of experimental science. Therefore, they cannot be included in the limited field of experimental science with a hasty and incorrect generalization and the possible fallacy of "whole-to-part definition"; they can be redefined under the propositions of mathematics, logic, philosophy, history, and so on.

Verstehen is a school of thought in which the agent of the mind, the presuppositions, the philosophical foundations of ontology, anthropology, and values ​​play major roles, whether or not the historian is aware of such data when historiographing. The purpose of this method is not only to reconstruct an event but also to reach the thought behind it, and it is obvious that the realization of this work will be possible only by rethinking this thought in the mind of the historian. Verstehen is the way in which we understand the inner meanings of phenomena along with a kind of sense of empathy and spiritual closeness to the social and historical actor. There is no doubt that this approach is very different from what is common in the natural experimental sciences because observation and experimentation can be effective by providing general rules to recognize inanimate objects. If a sociologist or a historian does not understand social and historical behavior and its hidden meanings, no other analysis or explanation can be very effective.
Objectivity, which is an important topic in historical epistemology, means that historical events must have features and components acceptable to all historians so as to pass what happened on to others, regardless of their values ​​and beliefs and assumptions in general.
The most important discussion that Max Weber has dealt with in the field of historical research is the study of the position of the historian's value system and his beliefs and its impact on the historiographical process. When a researcher enters the research process, his values ​​inevitably fall in the field of research and any understanding or perception achieved between human beings, consciously or unconsciously, is influenced by the theoretical philosophical foundations as well as the value system of the researcher. Weber considers value neutrality to be necessary only at the stage of possible collection or gathering. He distinguishes between the gathering authority, which is concerned with the choice of a subject for research, and the arbitral authority, which makes the distinction.
Taha Hussein, who was concerned with the gap between tradition and modernity, sought to transform the educational system of his time by innovating a method of literary historiography. He also tried to establish Egyptian modernity by reviving traditional literature.While criticizing the traditional method, he emphasized the objectivity and methodization of research and writing the history of literature. In order to confront the two traditional and modern paradigms, he intended to create a homogeneous combination in historiography and to choose a middle method that was a combination of the Azhari tradition and modern methodology. To this end, he criticized the method of literary historiography and the old and new approaches to teaching at his time, which lacked critical accuracy. He preferred Descartes's skeptical method and his philosophical reflections, but he turns to the foundations of his method. In general, the theoretical components of Taha Hussein's literary historiography can be itemized as follows:
a) Doubtfulness of a method as a basic rule for believing historical propositions
b) The complete emptiness of the researcher's mind of any presuppositions, patriotic tendencies, and religious beliefs as well as being generally devoid of any credibility and value propositions
c) Making a distinction between the intellect and the heart and freeing the intellect from the bondage of all the three inner realms of man, namely emotions, feelings and excitements.
d) Lack of adherence to anything but theoretical and practical commitment to the correct scientific method of research.

The result of this research indicates that, in addition to being an epistemological category, historiography has a historical function. Therefore, it is not devaluated and cannot be devoid of the presuppositions, philosophical foundations and the culture of the researcher of history in general, nor is such an approach desirable in historiography.

The cohesion of poetic elements is one of the factors contributing to the organic unity of odes. Poetic cohesion is the result of various elements, especially coordinating conjunctions. In other words, the literariness of a text is the result of syntactic coordination. Since the early 20th century and with the advent of modernist literary movements in the Arab world, the subject of cohesion and coherence in odes has turned into a hot topic. In this regard, the structure of modern poetry is set free from the strict systematism of traditional poems, which was held by the poets of the 1950s as an important element of poetry. In other words, since a poetic context is made up of various phonetic, syntactic, rhetorical, and semantic structures, it is of necessity to find a way to connect these distinct structures. In other words, these structures are so distinct that, in order to capture the nuances involved in each area, each has turned into a distinct field of study. Therefore, the present study focuses on coordinating conjunctions, which are related to the syntactic layer. Furthermore, the existing cohesion is studied in larger linguistic units, i.e., sentences, and the type and usage of these links are analyzed by considering coordinating conjunctions and syntactic parallelism, structures lacking coordinating conjunctions and cause-and-effect relations. To this end, twenty odes by three resistance poets (Muin Bseiso, Muhammad al- Fitoori, and Adnan al-Saegh) are studied to answer the research questions a) What is the relationship between the context and the poetic components of the selected poems? and b) What are the most important elements in achieving syntactic cohesion in the works of these three poets?
The present research is a descriptive-analytical-comparative one. It seeks to study the syntactic cohesion and its types in twenty odes written by Bseiso, al- Fitoori, and al-Saegh.
Unlike Bseiso’s poems, referral compounds in al-Fitoori’s poems are used frequently. Such structures are tangible and undeniable ones which originate from the stagnation, dictatorship and colonialism existing in the society. The poem, consequently, shows this feeling and approach perfectly well by making use of coordinating conjunctions to link different sentences in the poem. This feature is indicative of the stagnation and dullness and removes the liveliness and speed of the words. On the other hand, Bseiso has combative and fierce spirits, and he rushes to oust the enemies and urges people to show up in battlefields. This makes his poems devoid of referral compounds. Al-Saegh’s poems are structurally different and arranged in a pleasing manner and, therefore, enjoy a high level of cohesion. Each sentence can be considered as a macro-structure in which several sentences are embedded and each macro-structure is repeated in the next structure with exactly the same coordination; the ode of ‘Maqate’’ can be a case in point. Unlike the other two poets, al-Fitoori makes extensive use of ‘uslub al-shart’ (conditionals) to express his and his people’s degree of resistance. This structure, in addition to coordination and musicality, sheds light on the poet’s thought in terms of meaning.
Studying the poems written by the poets of resistance yields the following a). Al-Fitoori has made use of coordination to link his sentences where a mystical feeling was dominant and no conjunctions were used. This is as if there is a feeling of divine intoxication and surprise to link the sentences together with no need for coordinating conjunctions.

b) Bseiso’s poetry, compared to al-Fitoori’s, makes use of these elements much less frequently in connecting the sentences. Bseiso’s wrath and belligerence have caused him to write sentence without any kind of link. In other words, his rush for ousting the enemies and encouraging people is a factor that has led to this feature in his poetry.
c) Al-Saegh’s poetry makes use of repetitive coordinations to link the sentences semantically and contextually. The different structure of his poem resembles more that of prose, and semantic relations are observed quite frequently. Furthermore, unlike Bseiso and al-Saegh, al-Fitoori makes extensive use of conditionals and the poet, quite vividly, depicts the toleration of torture, pain, and difficulty on the way to liberate one’s home country and ousting foreign colonialists. Furthermore, through cause-and-effect relationships, he actually warns his enemies against his seriousness and irreconcilability. However, such a cause-and-effect relationship can be achieved through a literary and emotional look which makes the audience ponder and delve into the details.

Recognizing popular and superstitious beliefs as an important part of popular culture introduces the behaviors of people and their ways of thinking and living. Sometimes beliefs set the course of life for the masses to guide them what to do in different aspects of life and what to turn away from. In fact, the positive and negative effect of these beliefs from the past to the present in people’s beliefs and lifestyles cannot be ignored. Human beliefs, generally logical or irrational, scientific or superstitious, are rooted in the ancient culture of any nation which have either remained intact in the same way or have undergone changes over a long period of time. These beliefs are sometimes rooted in the fears of the people of the past and sometimes in the lack of knowledge and insight of the past. They include doing things that have no rational roots. It can be acknowledged that all these beliefs originate from popular thoughts, feelings and emotions, and the belief and acceptance of these beliefs depends on the type of insight and thinking of each person about them. The purpose of writing this article is to examine the modernist view of love as one of the most ambiguous and attractive topics in the works of the famous romantic poet Nizar Qabbani in the field of Arabic literature. Thanks to his valuable cultural treasure, he has been able to express many of his romantic feelings by using superstitious notions. Thus, with the connection between modernity and tradition, it has gained a high position in the field of literature. Factors such as poetic talent and experience, proximity of the poet’s poetic language to the language of the masses, understanding the importance of popular culture and literature, people’s way of life in the eyes of the poet, the attractiveness of these beliefs, and people’s desire for these beliefs have provided a background for the use of popular and superstitious beliefs in the layers of love poems to unite the audience, which is the general public.
Assuming that the culture and life of people was one of the greatest sources of inspiration for Nizar’s poems. This research has examined his works with a descriptive and analytical method. It has been shown how Nizar’s view of popular and superstitious beliefs is reflected in his poems and how he has used these beliefs to reflect his culture, depicted love as the most ancient phenomenon and the most complex subject in the lyrical literature, and used the spice of popular and superstitions beliefs such as coffee divination, giants, magic, etc. With these items, he has created a new realm in depicting romantic concepts such as the complexity and ambiguity of love, the glory and power of love, sincerity and loyalty.
Nizar as a modern and anti- superstition poet tried to create a new atmosphere in the Arabic poetry and to engage his audience, which is the general public devoted to a significant portion of his poems, to popular and superstitious beliefs. Since the poet was fully acquainted with the beliefs of the common people and completely fluent in the terms and language of the people in the street and the bazaar, he got the language of his poetry close to the language of the masses. He understood the appeal of these beliefs and the passion that people had for them. He had an eloquent and powerful pen to express the complexity and ambiguity of love, the glory and power of love, the value and importance of love, sincerity and loyalty. The description of the pain of love and the suffering of the lover has been successfully performed through popular and superstitious beliefs such as coffee divination, jinn, giants, magic rugs and hand palm lines.
The beauty and sweetness of the concept of love in this research is due to the connection of traditional beliefs and the poet’s new perspective on love. He has very skillfully put the two together and made his love popular. Nizar has used these beliefs as a basis for analyzing emotions and expressing inner states, which is a new step in portraying love and the beloved and the states of the lover. In his personal view, in fact, the high frequency of such beliefs in his poems and language has little to do with the acceptance or non-acceptance of these beliefs. Nizar has tried to pass a wealth of information about popular beliefs and superstitions through the filter of his poetic and romantic imaginations and paint them with a poetic glaze. By doing so, he creates romantic images to praise and describe love. The beloved and the states of the lover, who are full of spirits and feelings.

Literary semiotics is one of the new methods of literary criticism that examines the semantic system of literary works. Michael Riffaterre is a semiotics theorist who has presented an exact model to provide a suitable tool for literary researchers to study the deep semantic layers of poems. Also, Hilma Salim is a modern Egyptian poet whose critical approach dominates most of his poems. The poem Al-Lufer is one of his critical poems which is full of poetic implications and contains explicit and implicit points about the negative effects of domestic tyranny and Western colonization on the Egyptian people. Based on the findings of Helma Salem's research, he has used a network of poetic symbols within the text to express the main messages in a literary and covered language.
This research is descriptive-analytical in nature. The data collection is based on the library method, and the research target is The Poem Al-Lufer by Hilma Salim. The approach used in this research is Michael Rifaterre's semiotic model, in which poems are first examined in heuristic and retroactive stages. In the first one, the reader gets a superficial understanding of the meaning of the text, but in the second view, the ungrammatical factors are identified, and the reader can reach the hidden layers of the text through accumulation frames and descriptive associative clusters.
When the relationship between the outer layer of the text and its depth is found, the connection between the internal and external factors in the unhealthy situation of Egyptians is revealed. The hidden data of the poem show that Westerners and domestic tyrants are the cause of misfortune and terrible situation in Egypt. Negligence and naivety have played a negative role in this case. The poem implies that the secret of the victory of the Egyptians is self-belief, avoidance of relying on the others and public awakening and resistance against tyranny and arrogance. The collections of this ode are in line with its descriptive systems, and each of them expresses different levels of meaning and shows a part of the structural matrix through the process of expansion and description. The collections of the poem are connected in a network, and floating signs are connected to the central signs of the ancient Egypt and the West. Each of the words of the poem is an explicit meaning that the poet loads with many implicit meanings with ungrammatical elements. He also connects the lexical level of the text of the poem to its depth, thus placing an emphasis on synonymy and meaning. Descriptive systems are gathered as a network of intertwined signals based on a virtual relation around the nucleus. According to Riffaterr's theory, the reader relies on his literary ability to move from the lexical level of the text to its deeper layers of the text. The causal relationship between the nucleus and the floating signs forms the semantic structure of this poem. They are connected under a semantic unity, and the linguistic signs in this poem go with this single structure that exists in the whole poem. Once the relationship between accumulations and descriptive systems is discoverd, the hypo grams show the cultural, social, political and economic situation of Egypt. Hypo grams are the key themes that shape the overall picture of a poem in the reader's mind, and some words and phrases evoke them. These themes are not explicitly reflected in the form of specific words, but they are referred to indirectly and visualize the central meaning of the poem in the mind of the audience. These hypo grams provide the basis for reaching the structural matrix of poetry. The structural matrix of this poem, which is rooted in its entire structure, begins linearly with a critical approach to the Westerners and protests against the non-implementation of the people's rule over the people. It ends with the poet's positive and hopeful attitude towards the future of Egypt.
According to the Riffaterre model, the relation between the accumulations and the descriptive systems of this poem depicts the structural matrix in which the poet first criticizes the dictatorship of the Egyptian rulers with a retrospective view and then condemns the Western colonial conspiracies and developmental policies. In the end, by arousing the revolutionary feeling of the Egyptians, he calls them to wake up and rise up against oppression and injustice.

The contemporary world is the world of domination and the importance of short stories over other literary genres. Contemporary man rarely has the taste and leisure to read long multi-volume novels, and that is why research in this field is of importance. In the short story, the character has already evolved and is in front of the waiting reader, engaged in something that has reached its critical moment or is in the process of something that has already happened but has not come to a result. In the short story, the author chooses a slice of the protagonist's life and a point from it that must reach a critical stage. It is a window that briefly acquaints the reader with the life of the protagonist or the other characters and allows looking at what is happening through this window. There are different types of short stories. One of them is lyrical short story, which is distinguished by the dominance of the element of "feeling and emotion" over other elements. In 1969, a critic named Eileen Baldshuiler explained and analyzed the lyrical short story in an article entitled "A History of Lyrical Short Story". In this article, he suggests that the narrative is of two forms, epic or lyrical. Epic means the prominence of actions and the importance of external narratives. According to Baldshuiler, in lyrical stories, the goal is the thoughts and feelings of the character (Mastoor, 1379, 34). In this regard, all characters are analyzed in terms of the structure of the elements of the story and take the structure of the story based on their performance. In Bald Schuiler's lyrical story, the reader marks the story to discover the end. Also, the narrator refers to certain signs in addition to the definitions he gives of his life path. Baldshuiller points out that the lyrical short story has all the elements that should be present in all stories, but, in his view, the traditional plot style is the least important element of the lyrical story, which can basically be in one paragraph or a few sentences.

In his view, the conventional plot is a believable plot formed on the basis of a very clear cause-and-effect relationship. However, the unconventional plot expresses the complex and contradictory feelings of the characters in the process of storytelling in a symbolic way and sometimes without precedence and latency. This creates a lot of interest in the story and the reader can follow it from somewhere in the text and sometimes play the role of the author for the characters of the story and sometimes end the story according to their mental structure. Another feature of the lyrical story that Baldshuiler mentions is the "emotional curve" that the character creates throughout the story. This refers to the changes that the character makes as a result of the course of events and what is left of that character in the end. A lyrical short story such as Ghasan Kanfani's Fi Janazati tries to examine the invisible dimension of reality. Therefore, in the short story, as in the poem, what is more important is not explicitly mentioned.The present study uses the descriptive-analytical method to analyzes the short story Fi Janazati by Ghassan Kanfani based on the components of the short story from the point of view of Eileen Baldshuiler. It examines the elements of the short story and   the author’s writing skills.  An analysis is also performed based on new literary studies such as Eileen Baldchuiller's theory.

The components of Eileen Bald-Schuyler's theory for lyrical short story are aphasia, subjectivism, emotion and imagination, open end, symbol. The timing of the apocalypse in the story of "Fi Janazi" is well illustrated in this story, the present is not dynamic and has no external movement and action. This indicates the anonymity of the present. Anonymity manifests itself in being mental and lacking dynamism and action. Perhaps, that is why the title of the story is "Fi Janazati" (at my funeral) which refers to the time of the narrator's death, and it is natural that, after death, man is not bound by time. The story of Fi Janazi has been narrated at two levels of time. The first level is the past tense, which is dynamic and objective, and the second level is the present tense, which is mental and immobile.
The second component of the lyrical short story is subjectivism, which means that the story takes place and progresses in the mental space of the characters, and the role of the external world is small. This can be clearly seen in Fi Janazaii by Ghassan Kanfani. In this story, the narrator returns to the past, but external events are not described much. The text begins with the narrator's fear and hope, and the narrator's childhood feelings are expressed, all of which are mental. Noting that the child's family surrendered to working to pay for the house, the space becomes a bit objective, but, in the following sentences, there are items that express the narrator's view of responsibility and life. Therefore, where external events are narrated, they still have a presence in the mental space. The story flows in a mixture of reality and mind. The third component of the lyrical short story, according to Bald Schuyler, is emotion and imagination; In the examined story, all the words, sentences, similes and metaphors give a completely hopeless and dark atmosphere to the text. In this respect, the text is very effective and emotional. The open end is another component that the author did not use in this story.And the last component is the symbol. The main symbol of this story is the spiritual and psychological interactions in the life of two couples, which takes place in the form of the title Fi Janazati.

Baldeshwiler’s quintuple principles in the story Fi Janazati by Ghassan Kanfani have been analyzed. The results show that, among those principles, the elements of anachronism, imagination and subjectivism are salient and can be considered as the source of real experiences of individual and social life and a reflection of reader’s self. Therefore, the story Fi Janazati can be considered as one of the perfect lyrical short stories.

Semiotics is one of the new methods in literary criticism of texts. Based on the principles of semiotics, researchers analyze the hidden and internal data of the text and the relations among the words in the context and reveal and interpret semantic secrets and signs in poetic texts. The science of semiotics entered a new phase in the 1960s with the rise of the French linguist Ferdinand Desoussor, but it was not long before the American Charles Pierce revolutionized the science of semiotics by presenting his threefold model. According to him, man lives in a complex system of a wide range of signs. By recognizing these signs, he comes to an understanding of existence. Hence, Pierce presents a three-dimensional model in which there is an inextricable link among the three parts. Pierce defines the concept of sign in three parts, including a) representation, which is a form that assumes a sign, not necessarily material, equivalent to ‘signifier’ in Saussure's view, b) object, as something to which the sign refers, and c) interpretant, as a meaning derived from a sign and a perception created by a sign. Interpretation is equivalent to meaning in Saussure's view.According to Pierce's theory, the sign has another classification, which is based on its characteristics. Pierce's semiotics is based on three philosophical categories, namely primacy, secondary, and tertiary. The category of priority includes matters that exist in themselves and without regard to any other relationship, such as whiteness or feelings of sadness, without questioning the cause. Pierce's second category is secondary to various components, including effects. For example, falling of a stone thrown on the ground and pain in terms of its cause are part of this category. The category of the secondary is more related to the practical life and personal experience of man. The third and last category is the category of the tertiary, which deals with general laws and objects. In fact, it relates the categories of priority and secondary. The connection among these three categories produces the concept of a sign.

Khazal Al-Majedi (1951) is one of the poets of modernity whose main poetic theme is the grief of homelessness and distance from home. He is an educated poet and is aware of the history of Iraq. The present study intends to examine the concepts of homelessness and alienation with an analytical-descriptive method in the Ahzan al-Sunnah al-Iraqi anthology by Khazal al-Majedi based on Pierce's theory. The poet's skill in choosing specific implications from the meanings is explored, multiple implications are derived from his vocabulary, and criticisms are made on the role of temporal and spatial coders in shaping vocabulary symptoms related to homelessness.

Since Al-Majedi's poems have a very high interpretive capacity and the study of the relationship between signs and codes in his poetry leads the reader to a correct understanding of his thoughts and the depth of his concepts and goals, Pierce's semiotic pattern was used to illuminate the underlying layers of his poems. In this research, in order to obtain the required data, previous findings and the relationships among them as well as the available valid sources have been used. The research is conducted based on the analysis of Khazal Al-Majedi's works so as to introduce the poet’s style and views, with a focus on the Ahzan al-Sunnah of Iraqi anthology and the books in the field of semiotics and content analysis.

Based on the research results, these cryptocurrencies have been used with the aim of beautifying words, increasing the semantic capacity of words and creating new and unfamiliar semantic combinations. They create images in the poems in line with their general atmosphere and reflect Al-Majedi's extra-textual factors, worldview, nostalgic emotions, feelings of homesickness, and intense attachment to his homeland.

Using spatial situations and spatial constraints, the poet has created a poetic space in which a system of interconnected meanings has been formed, giving the concept of sign a visual dimension and using the physical properties of place and homelessness. He has loneliness, which is abstract and intangible, or visible and tangible. He gives it a sensory nature so that the reader can reach the depths of his emotions, alienation and sorrow and sympathize with him.In his poetry, Al-Majedi uses the element of time as a form and container that illustrates all his memories and emotional experiences. This is done by using metaphors and similes and turning time units into poetic signs and the concepts of homelessness and bitterness. He expresses distressing moments away from home in indirect language. These time and space vessels depict his intense attachment to his homeland, show an emotional and cultural burden, and reflect the world inside the poet and his tired soul.He creates a chain of images, signs and meanings by arranging explicit meanings in the text of the poem. He also produces successive and related poetic images and uses the spice of imagination and permissible language to target the reader's mind. The main and hidden meaning behind these words are well deliberated, and the symbols of homelessness in his poems are the product of the transition from the phonetic form of words and temporal and spatial constraints and the surface texture of the text to the abstract interpretation and meaning of the sign, which is interpreted with the help of a subject in the real and external world.